Nitro Compounds

Nitro Compounds

 

Derivatives of certain molecules that contain the nitrate, NO₂, group, possess an explosive potential. Whenever an explosive detonates and a massive blast wave is produced, certain gaseous products are produced that expand rapidly and heat is also produced; these decomposition reactions tend to be exothermic because a lot of heat is released, which contributes to the violent explosion. The blast wave is triggered by the instantaneous expansion of the gases that are produced during the chemical reaction. Certain chemical reactions proceed very violently, often including explosions and expansion of gases. The main point of explosives is to produce a violent shock wave, which would cause damage. The chemical reaction is supposed to proceed at a sufficient and high enough rate in order for the expansion of the gases and the heat to occur rapidly; if the chemical reaction does not proceed quickly enough, the resultant gases will slowly dissipate into the atmosphere and the blast wave will not be produced. Since many explosive molecules are based on the benzene ring, the alternating single and double bonds alter and distort the wavelength of absorption of the ultraviolet light; molecules such as beta-carotene contains alternating double and single bonds, which allows the molecule to absorb ultraviolet light at certain wavelengths and emit/reflect another wavelength that is absorbed to the lowest extent. The explosive potential of a molecule depends on the amount of nitrate groups attached to the parent chain of the molecule; for example, the compound, 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene contains three nitrate groups and has a very high explosive potential. Oxygen is obviously required as a fuel to drive the chemical reaction yet the oxygen present in the atmosphere will not sufficiently perform this task because the decomposition reaction will not proceed as rapidly as expected to be applied as weapons. The oxygen atoms have to be incorporated in the molecular structure and have to actually be attached to the nitrogen atoms so that when the compound is detonated, those attached oxygen atoms could quickly swap places, attach to other atoms such as carbon atoms to form new covalent bonds and the possibly form carbon dioxide; oxygen present in the atmosphere is “too far” to relocate this way to produce the gases and heat efficiently enough. Guncotton or nitrocellulose has been accidentally synthesized by Fredriech; however other chemists considered synthesizing other explosive compounds. Ascanio Sobrero, following this incident, studied the how nitric acid influenced certain molecules and prepared an experiment to react glycerin and nitric acid; the glycerin could be isolated from animal fat. Glycerol (propane-1,2,3-triol) serves as a backbone to form a triglyceride, which is the most common form of lipids, or fats. The resultant compound that was isolated from the reaction solution was nitroglycerin. While handling nitroglycerin, many individuals experienced headaches due to vasodilation; this effect has provoked the usage of nitroglycerin to prevent heart attacks and to treat the pain caused by angina pectoris; nitroglycerin releases the small molecule, nitric oxide, NO, which is a powerful vasodilator, which means that it causes the blood vessels to widen and increase the surface area. The dilation of the coronary arteries facilitated an adequate flow of oxygenated blood to the myocardium, which decreases the pain caused by an insufficient flow of oxygenated blood to the heart. Nitric oxide also regulates the blood pressure and transmitting signals between cells, aiding in digestion and the establishment of long-term memory. The first explosive, gunpowder, has been used in China, Arabia, and India to produce weapons, firecrackers, and fireworks. The chemical reaction and the characteristics of gunpowder have been studied by people such as Roger Bacon. The demand for nitroglycerin increased, however the substance has often been mishandled and caused many inconveniences. Nitroglycerin was often contaminated by the acid it was stored with and decomposed slowly, popping the containers they were stored in. In 1866, a sample of nitroglycerin detonated in a Wells Fargo warehouse, causing fourteen casualties. During the war, heavy artillery and cannons contained the two explosive compounds, trinitrotoluene and trinitrophenol. Guns could not contain such explosive compounds such as nitroglycerin because they cannot handle the force that is exerted onto the gun during detonation, however the explosives were launched by hand. Smokeless gunpowder has been composed of nitroglycerin and nitrocellulose. Trinitrotoluene and picric acid (trinitrophenol) have both been applied, however there are differences amongst the two, chemically similar molecules. Both molecules contain three nitrate groups, however picric acid contain a hydroxyl group on carbon 1 and TNT contains a methyl group of carbon 1. Picric acid is very difficult to detonate during humid or rainy weather conditions and it is slightly acidic, which causes it to react with the metal container it was stored in, which could provoke an unanticipated detonation, which would penetrate through armor and induce unintentional casualties. TNT is also difficult to detonate, however it is more suitable for munitions. The TNT molecule contains a lower amount of carbon to oxygen ratio, thus the chemical reaction may not occur completely and it is much safer to handle than nitroglycerin because its behavior is very unpredictable. Habor, one time, reacted nitrogen in the air with hydrogen gas to produce ammonia, which has been used as a fertilizer and has provided many advances and improvements in agriculture to stimulate the rate of growth of various crops; ammonium nitrate has also been used as a fertilizer, however it has also been applied in the warzone as mines. In order to produce the explosive compounds, nitric acid is required. Nitric acid has been formed by reaction sulphuric acid with sodium nitrate to form nitric acid and sodium sulphate. Ammonium nitrate is a safe explosive when handled properly however various incidents and terroristic attacks have occurred, involving ammonium nitrate. For example, during 1993, terrorist have planted a bomb in the World Trade Centre in New York City. One time, in the port of Texas City, a fire has occurred. Immediate countermeasures have been applied and the hatches have been closed where the ammonium nitrate has been stored; however the closed hatchets increased the pressure, compression, and heat conditions on the ship and the load of ammonium nitrate detonated and inflicted many casualties. Explosive molecules have changed civilization and have impacted society due to their applications in war as weapons, however the applications of certain explosive compounds are different today. Nitroglycerin is used to prevent heart attacks and is used as a treatment for the pain induced by angina pectoris. As always, profit has been generated from the trade of explosives and the demand was high, yet the influence on society and history of certain newly synthesized and discovered molecules does not always impart beneficial effects. What used to be applied as an explosive to induce casualties of opponents is now used to support the cardiovascular system and for a different purpose.      

 

 

Cellulose

Cellulose

 

Cellulose is a molecule that significantly influenced society and socialization and is a structural polysaccharide. The difference between structural and storage polysaccharides is the linkage between the monomer components of the polymer; storage polysaccharides contain the alpha linkages and the structural polysaccharides, such as cellulose, contain the beta configuration. To form a polysaccharide, a dehydration synthesis reaction occurs, in which the OH group from one glucose molecule and the removal of a H atom from another glucose molecule and a covalent bond or a glycosidic linkage forms between the monomers on carbon 1 of one glucose molecule and carbon 4 on the adjacent glucose molecule. The issue is that we, humans, lack the enzymes that cleave the beta linkages in the cellulose molecule, therefore we do not obtain a nutritional yield from cellulose; it only functions as an insoluble fiber or roughage. Insoluble fibers stimulate bowel movements and aid in the dissipation of waste products from the large intestine into the external environment. Certain species such as cows are capable of cleaving the beta linkages in the structural polysaccharide, cellulose, and obtain nutrients and a caloric value from the food item; however other species, such as rodents contain bacteria in their large intestines that break down the cellulose molecules into glucose units prior to the formation of feces, so the rabbits ingest their own feces in certain cases to obtain a nutritional yield from cellulose, which is pretty distasteful. Storage polysaccharides, on the other hand, are arranged in the alpha configuration and we do have the enzymes that cleave the alpha linkage in storage polysaccharides, therefore we are capable of obtaining a nutritional yield and a sugar spike from sugars such as glycogen and starch. Starch is a polysaccharide that contains millions of glucose units, along with amylose and amylopectin molecules. One amylopectin molecule is present per twenty - twenty-five glucose molecules. The linear structure of cellulose is different from the chain-like structure of starch because it contains branching units of amylopectin, which also contains cross-linkages. Since the starch molecule contains a helical-coil-like structure, it is soluble in water because in solution, the water molecules will penetrate into the helical structure of the starch molecules. Cellulose is insoluble in water. A starch solution that is constantly heated will eventually lead to the collapse of the starch molecules and fragments of starch molecules will be dispersed along the solution, which becomes a gel. The storage polysaccharide in animals and in humans, glycogen, contains many branched units of glucose and contains alpha linkages every ten glucose units. The highly branched structural arrangement in the glycogen molecule allow enzymes to cleave the ends of the glycogen molecule to induce an increase in blood glucose levels rapidly; glycogenolysis occurs when many hydrolytic enzymes cleave off ends of the glycogen molecule simultaneously to obtain units of independent glucose molecules. However, starch in plants contains less-branched amylopectin molecules and unbranched amylose molecules, which would suffice for the plant, along with its lower metabolic rate. Cotton, which consists of approximately 90% of cellulose, is obtained from the seeds of cotton plants, which are naturally found and are cultivated in many parts of the world, such as India, Pakistan, Mexico, and Peru. Cotton trade has boosted economic growth and development in areas such as England and the central industrial complex relating to the cotton trade and manufacture was located in Lancashire, England. Cotton has been imported and exported large amounts of cotton because the demand for cheap materials such as cotton to produce many different items such as carpets and clothing was high and the cotton trade significantly impacted industrialization and the economy, especially in England during the late 18^th century. The working conditions on farms where cotton used to be cultivated were harsh; people were forced to work hard to extract and process the cotton and produce various items such as clothing and the quality of life in those regions were not too high and the infant mortality increased as a result of the poor working conditions. Owners of businesses and factories desired to continue generating large amounts of profit from the cotton trade, which would have been affected it effort would have been inputted to attempt to improve to working conditions. The abolishment of the slave trade in 1807 has only caused factory owners and wealthy people who made their fortune from the cotton trade to import cotton from other areas of the world, such as South America, which contains slave-grown cotton. Slavery has only been expanded as a result of the huge profits the monopoly of the cotton trade could generate as a result of the high demand for cotton; cotton fibers were used to produce and manufacture clothing and furniture, very commonly used products. Cellulose is a very abundant organic compound and is biosynthesized in huge quantities every year. Friedrich Schonbein accidently synthesized nitrocellulose or guncotton by accidentally spilling nitric acid on the floor and attempting to clean up the spill using his wife’s cotton apron; an explosion and a flash has been produced. A derivative of nitrocellulose, celluloid, has been used in cameras to generate flashes and to illuminate films, however casualties have occurred because nitrated forms of cellulose tend to be unstable and unpredictable. Guncotton is one of the first explosive compounds that have been synthesized and its derivatives were patented to generate profit because various industries, including the photography industry was interested in applying one of the derivatives to attain certain goals or to facilitate improvements. The author’s argument makes sense because the influence of this molecule and its derivatives on history, human behavior, and society has been portrayed effectively in this chapter. Therefore, both cellulose, with its beta configuration, and starch, with its alpha configuration, are necessary in our diet to provide our cells with an ample supply of glucose to produce energy and to remove waste products from the gastrointestinal tract. Cotton is used by almost everybody and cotton-containing products are produced in huge quantities annually. Cellulose is ingested as an insoluble fiber in a variety of products, such as watermelons, broccoli, and pumpkins. The trade, usage, applications, production, and cultivation of cotton and derivatives of cellulose such as nitrocellulose and celluloid have impacted industrialization and have contributed to social change and movements due to the huge profits that are generated from cotton trade, the high demand for cheap cotton products, and the various applications of cotton in society, including the production and manufacture of clothing and furniture. Currently, in every home and on everybody’s body, a product that contains cotton is present, whether it is a t-shirt of a carpet, are not noticed behind the various plans and pursuits that are present in people’s minds. 

 

                 





Glucose

Glucose

 

Glucose is a molecule that has influenced society and civilization significantly due to its ubiquitous applications as taste and flavor enhancers, preservatives, and sweeteners. Glucose is the primary source of energy and stimulates the phosphorylation of ADP into ATP to power anabolic or endergonic reactions within the cell. All of the different types of cells, including neurons, myocytes, adipocytes, and erythrocytes require an ample supply of glucose to facilitate ATP synthesis. Glucose is a monosaccharide, which is a monomer as a sugar. The glucose molecule contains six carbon atoms and is arranged in a cyclic form, along with its constitutional isomer, fructose. There are two positions of each molecule, the alpha position and the beta position; to form the disaccharide sucrose, the OH group on Carbon 1 of alpha glucose and the H atom on Carbon 2 on beta fructose are removed through a dehydration synthesis reaction to form a dimer. The substances, glucose, sucrose, and fructose taste sweet because the shape of their chemical and molecular structure allow them to bind to the receptors on the “sweetness” taste buds and induce the perception of sweetness during chemical digestion of the food item in the mouth. The reason as to why these molecules produce the perception of the sweet taste directly refers to their molecular structure; the atoms are arranged in a dispersed manner and are pretty distant from one another, causing the sugar molecule to be larger. The facilitated diffusion of glucose molecules into the cytoplasm only occurs when insulin molecules bind to their receptors, next to the GLUT transporters. Sugar metabolism is also stimulated by the mechanism of action of insulin, including glycolysis and the polymerization of glucose into glycogen. Lactose, another disaccharide, is composed of glucose and galactose, yet not everybody has a sufficient amount of the digestive enzyme, lactase, to cleave the sugar found in milk. The symptoms of ingestion of milk in a lactose intolerant person include vomiting, bloating, diarrhea, and indigestion as a result of the presence of food molecules that cannot be cleaved and broken down into its constituent components. Other sweet compounds also exist, yet their consumption is no recommended due to their possible toxicity in the body. One compound that imparts a sweet taste would be ethylene glycol, which is metabolized into oxalic acid, which poses renal toxicity and may induce acute kidney failure as a result. During the times of ancient Rome, the sweetener, lead acetate, has been used to sweeten wines and the wines themselves were stored for prolonged periods of time in containers that were composed of lead acetate. The cation in the compound, lead, is a neurotoxin, which means that it will induce a variety of symptoms relating to the nervous system, such as irritability, erratic behavior, headaches, mental instability, and brain damage. Emperor Nero has is known to express symptoms such as erratic behavior and irritability as a result of lead poisoning and toxicity. Artificial sweeteners, currently, are also being synthesized in large amounts on an industrial scale and are applied to a variety of products; these compounds include sucralose, stevia, cyclamate, acesulfame potassium, and aspartame. During 1879, a chemistry student at John Hopkins University at Baltimore noticed the sweetness in the bread he was consuming, which lead to the usage of saccharin as an artificial sweetener. Saccharin could be metabolized into aspartame in two steps (Saccharin à Sodium Cyclamate à Aspartame). These molecules mimic the geometry of the molecular structure of naturally occurring sugars, yet are often not metabolized and broken down in the body. For example, the artificial sweetener, sucralose, is similar to the sucrose molecule however the glucose unit is replaced with galactose, and three OH (hydroxyl groups) are replaced with chlorine atoms, which do not affect the sweetness of the compound but prevent the body from metabolizing it, therefore it is known as a non-caloric sugar. Excess ingestion of an artificial sweetener such as sucralose could lead to acute hyperglycemia, however because the pancreas does not secrete insulin in response to the sugar molecules being present in the bloodstream. Thee only way these molecules could be eliminated from the bloodstream is through renal excretion (glomerular filtration and tubular secretion) into the filtrate. Sugarcane cultivation (Saccharum officinarum) used to occur from several centuries ago and has also lead to the importation of African slaves into the New World and the sugar trade, which fueled the economic growth in Europe and generated large profit margins due to the great demand of sugar. Sugar has been used in a variety of products, such as jams, alcoholic beverages, and sweets. The sugar trade eventually led to the French Industrial Revolution and the economic expansion of Britain. After slavery has been abolished, other minority groups were exploited and worked on sugarcane plantations to cultivate the substance that everybody craves once in a while and is applied to a great amount of products, such as cookies, beverages, and other treats. During the past few centuries, from the late 18^th century, sugarcane cultivation and the monopoly of the sugar trade generated large amounts of profit and satisfied many people’s taste buds, which millions of other people were exploited to maintain the process of sugar cultivation. Currently, the average sugar consumption, including glucose and its isomers, is much higher than it has been during the past few centuries, giving rise to new disorders and conditions such as diabetes, weight gain, metabolic problems, glycation, and dental caries. The author’s opinions and the information provided concerning glucose is very accurate because the entire picture and idea is divulged, including aspects of human behavior, how sugar has been produced, slavery, and the economic expansions the trade on sugar and sugar-based products provoked in many parts of the world, particularly France and the Great Britain. In conclusion, the molecule glucose influenced human civilization and society because substances of a high demand always yield to high profit margins, increases in economic growth, and the application of sugar in a variety of products that are found everywhere and in almost every store that sells food items. However, the excessive consumption of sugar currently also precipitates a variety of symptoms and disorders that may have serious consequences. Every molecule that is ubiquitous and found in large quantities everywhere used to be cultivated through arduous effort and exploitation to boost economies and generate profit margins; while consuming a cup of coffee and a donut in the morning, nobody seems to give it any thought.   

 

            



Ascorbic Acid

Ascorbic Acid

 

Ascorbic acid, also known as vitamin C, because it is the third vitamin that has been discovered, is an essential nutrient that has played a major role in shaping society and civilization. A vitamin is an amine and is vital to obtain an adequate nutritional yield if you study the word morphology of the word “vitamin.” Ascorbic acid is a substance that aids in the formation of the collagen fibers in the connective tissue. Connective tissues are dispersed throughout the body and are found in blood vessels, gums, the heart, and the blood plasma. If vitamin C is ingested in excess, the excess amount of ascorbic acid will leave the body through renal excretion.   Ascorbic acid is synthesized in the liver through a metabolic pathway including four chemical reactions, involving oxidation and reduction. Ascorbic acid is synthesized from glucose in the liver, yet this is not sufficient enough to establish an ample supply of ascorbic acid in the body to maintain the structural integrity of the connective tissue. Many attempts to isolate ascorbic acid have occurred, yet they were unsuccessful because it is challenging and tedious to isolate the ascorbic acid from the sugars and the sugar-like substances the molecules of ascorbic acid are attached to. A Hungarian doctor and biochemist, Albert Szent-Gyorgyi, has extracted a small sample of a crystalline substance from a cow’s adrenal cortex, which he assumed to be a sugar-like hormone he called ignose; however the molecular shape of the substance depicts a ring and it contains six carbon atoms. The presence of OH (hydroxyl) and C=O (carbonyl) groups reveal that the substance is an acid, hexuronic acid, which happens to be the same substance as ascorbic acid, vitamin C. The main issue, in history, in association to this molecule is the disease scurvy, as a result of vitamin C deficiency, which has mainly occurred on sea. During the fast few centuries, many sailors suffered from this disease as a result of a lack of fruits that contain vitamin C, such as lemons and oranges, on board. It was a challenge to replentish the food supply and technologies for refrigeration were not too developed, which means that storing fresh food items on board was a difficult task. Many voyages that have occurred in history involved breakouts of scurvy as a result of the insufficiency of the sailor’s diet, which involved salted meat and other items, without any sources of vitamin C. A series of symptoms, such as weakness, swelling of the arms and legs, diarrhea, muscle pain, hemorrhaging, and lung and kidney problems could arise, even death from infections such as heart failure and pneumonia. Due to the expensiveness and inconvenience of storing fresh fruits and vegetables on heavily manned vessels, it has not occurred until the Chinese have been planting ginger and storing citrus fruits on their vessels and until enough people have realized that all of these symptoms could be alleviated by fresh fruits and vegetables on board. However, the vitamin C count could decline due to heat, light, or long-term storage. James Cook of the British Royal Navy was the first captain to be concerned about maintaining a scurvy-free environment on his ship during his journey to Canada across the Atlantic Ocean through means of personal hygiene and a balanced diet to lower mortally rates and to insure good health of the seamen on board. Sanitary conditions were to be maintained and new products were introduced, except for an ample supply of fruits and vegetables. The daily dosage of vitamin C would be approximately 150 mg and an excess amount will not be added to the blood plasma but will be secreted into the filtrate for renal excretion. Vitamin C also prevents a variety of disorders such as gout, multiple sclerosis, Crohn’s disease, obesity, gastric ulcers, herpes simplex infections, diabetes, alcoholism, schizophrenia, coronary heart disease, autoimmune diseases, etc. Vitamin C supplements are also available, yet is it questionable whether they are as effective as naturally occurring vitamin C; naturally occurring vitamin C is absorbed and digested more effectively than its synthetic counterpart because the products such as oranges that contain ascorbic acid also contain substances that that act as coenzymes and aid in the digestion of vitamin C for an increased nutritional yield. Vitamin C is an antimicrobial agent that is why foods that contain vitamin C or vitamin C supplements are recommended during a cold or flu, to stimulate the function of the immune system. Vitamin C also acts as a preservative; preservatives are usually not beneficial for human health, yet their addition is necessary to prevent the development of malignant and infection-causing bacteria such as the Clostridium Botulinum in canned foods and in other products. The botulinum toxin is extremely potent is lethal at very small doses such as 0.03 mg per kilogram of body weight. Botulism is characterized by muscle paralysis due to the protein and neurotoxin, botulinum toxin, interfering with the activity of the neuromuscular junction. Despite all of the other functions, applications, and properties of ascorbic acid, in history it mainly decreased the mortality rate and a variety of symptoms from scurvy. I personally think that this molecule has influenced history and society because the apparent role of vitamin C has counteracted scurvy during voyages to other parts of the world to maintain good health of the sailors on board and to increase the efficiency of the crew. In today’s day, vitamin C is not only ingested for its nutritional value, but it is also used as a preservative and as an antimicrobial agent, which aids in the immune function. Voyages across large bodies of water to other parts of the world has been a prominent aspect of history and civilization, which has been enhanced significantly by this molecule that has been introduced into the sailor’s diet. In conclusion, vitamin C deserves a prominent place in history for alleviating symptoms of a disease that have affected voyages conducted by many people over many years, for providing nutritional yield, for serving as a building block for the most abundant protein in the body, collagen, and for serving as an antimicrobial agent, aiding in the immune function. Sources of vitamin C are available everywhere and in every supermarket today, but we do not realize how much time, effort, and arduous research and experimentation it took to realize that this molecule is one of the most necessary components of our diet.                                            

Peppers, Nutmeg, and Cloves

Peppers, Nutmeg, and Cloves

 

Nutmeg, peppers, and cloves, were considered valuable substances during the past few centuries due to their lower availability and less industrialized and technologically advanced methods of obtaining, processing, producing, and transporting the products to other people, therefore trade and monopoly were required to allow other types of people from other parts of the world to obtain these resources. Peppers contain the molecule, piperine, which consists of atoms of carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen atoms and the shape of the molecular structure was responsible for the hot sensations that arise upon ingestion of the substance. The molecule in ginger, zingerone, also is responsible for the hot sensation because the shape of the molecules permit them to bind to a pain receptor, a particular protein, which are located on the tongue, and the depolarization of the pain receptors causes the brain (the somatosensory centre of the pariental lobe) to respond with the corresponding perception due to the presence of an irritant in the body. However, spicy foods do stimulate salivation and aid in digestion, along with the stimulation of bowel movements. Whenever one experiences pain in response to a certain stimulus repeatedly over a short period of time, the peptide hormones, endorphins, which mimic opiates and are natural pain relievers provide a sense of well-being and block pain receptors by binding to them and preventing depolarization, which inhibits the propagation of action potentials carrying the perception of pain. Clove contains the molecule eugenol, while nutmeg contains the molecule, isoeugenol. These are two aromatic compounds that differ in the position of the double bond, yet possess a pungent odour. The benzene ring contributes to the chemical stability of the substances due to the resonance hybrid and the presence of delocalized elections, which do not readily engage in chemical reactions because they are too occupied with being shared amongst just six carbon atoms while three double bonds are present in the benzene ring. Certain species of plants synthesize these types of molecules in a metabolic pathway not for our benefit, but for chemical means of self-preservation, self-defense, and as pesticides/fungicides/insecticides. These three molecules, zingerone, piperine, and capsaicin, perform this function in plants, yet are detoxified into inactive and non-toxic metabolites in the liver. Nutmeg’s adverse effects are caused by the molecules myristicin and elemicin, which are responsible for the hallucinogenic and psychedelic properties. The effects of consuming too many nutmeg units would be sweating, palpitations, hallucinations, delirium, nausea, and elevated blood pressure. A similar molecule to myristicin, safrole, lacks the OCH₃ group attached at the bottom of the benzene ring, which could be metabolizes into the drug MDMA or ecstasy in a metabolic pathway. Peppers were used mainly by the wealthy because they were expensive and difficult to obtain certain centuries ago. The Venetian monopoly became active and generated large profit margins from trading and exporting the product to other parts of the world, such as Africa and India. Certain people have sent fleets and ships to obtain and transport the product, the peppers, from one area to another to sell it at exorbitant rates, which means that only and mainly citizens of a higher social class were able to afford peppers, which were used for their health benefits and as flavor enhancers. Clove, on the other hand, was applied in society to cure certain diseases, as an antiseptic, and as a topical anesthetic. Nutmeg was used to cure stomach aches and was used to provide protection against fatal accumulative diseases such as smallpox, part of the Black Death. The molecules myristicin and elemicin have insecticidal properties and are more toxic to humans, and the molecule isoeugenol has antibacterial properties and has the potential to provide protection and cure against bacterial and streptococcal infections that precipitate fatal conditions and threaten life and physical health such as Typhus. Pepper, which is derived from the plant species Piper nigrum, is still one of the most commonly used spices and could is produces in many countries, but has originated in India. These valuable resources have impacted society and civilization because it has provoked monopoly, trade, and transportation across considerable distances to obtain and transport the peppers to generate profit. During this time period, several centuries ago, since the abundance of this resource has been significantly lower, compared to today’s abundance of peppers, it has been a very lucrative practice to actively participate in the trade of peppers, nutmeg, and clove. The clove trade has been dominated by the Portuguese, during the sixteenth and the Dutch, during the next century, and a series of conflicts, attacks, and massacres also occurred to obtain this resource. I personally think that these molecules have impacted society and the modern world because these resources are still being commonly used and applied as flavor enhancers, yet many people are unaware of all of the explorations, journeys, and conflicts people in the past have encountered as a result of these fragrant molecules and their properties. The author’s argument makes sense during this chapter because Penny Le Couteur effectively outlines the impact of these molecules and resources on society, history, the behavior that would be provoked instinctually such as generating profit, and the actual applications of the resources in the past that are now obsolete, such as providing protection against various bacterial infections and as psychedelic drugs (nutmeg). In conclusion, these molecules could be commemorated for the fortunes they built, the conflicts they provoked, and the widespread, ubiquitous applications of these fragrant molecules as spices in foods. Every type of commonly used resource, such as spices, salt, and olive oil contributed to variations in social order, industrial advances, and monopolies in the past, but are now simply and cheaply obtained chemical compounds that a majority of people take for granted.