Short-term Benefits vs. Long-term Impacts

Short-term Benefits vs. Long-term Impacts

 

There are certain molecules and methods of cultivation that pose negative effects on the environment. Personally, I think that an increases awareness of the negative environmental impacts of certain molecules such as CFCs has occurred, compared to the past one-hundred years. In the past, when CFC molecules were first being applied to form refrigerators ad air conditioners, many people were very naïve and assumed that the molecules would only yield to positive effects on human civilization, society, industrial advancements, and advances in technological application, yet a very low amount of people have realized that CFC molecules upset the balance between the ozone and oxygen molecules in the stratosphere, which lead to the destruction of the ozone layer due to CFC molecules leaking out of disposed refrigerators and air conditioners. Certain individuals managed to discover and divulge the negative effects of CFCs on the environment, yet an increases awareness towards environmental protection has been noticed many years later and during the current time period, the twenty-first century. In order to deal with such dilemmas and issues, certain alternatives are being synthesized and certain countermeasures are being taken in relation to refrigerating, cooling, and foaming agents such as CFCs. However, a majority of people continue to install more expensive and “efficient” refrigerators and air conditioners in their home in order to suit their wants and desires. In reality, certain more efficient devices contain a greater amount of refrigerants that would actively contribute to decomposing ozone molecules in the stratosphere upon disposal of the product. The focus on the short-term benefits outweighs the concern for the long-term impacts on the environment of certain molecules. Many extremely useful compounds, such as PCBs, are capable for aiding in the production of a variety of products and synthetic polymers, while their usage either had to be abolished or safety countermeasures had to be employed to prevent exposure to such chemicals because of their high toxicity in the body. Another major issue that has occurred in history is the depletion of resources and clear-cutting of trees to isolate and extract the molecule present to generate huge profits during the trade and monopoly and to meet the increasing demands of people in society. Thousands of quina trees were being cut down annually during the quinine trade; many businesses, corporations, and the industry mainly shift their focus and attention on large-scale productions to generate large profit margins during a trade. The negative environmental impacts such as the interference with biodiversity, pollution from industrial process, depletion of resources, clear-cutting, and the decomposition of the ozone layer are recognized and are given thought by a very low amount of people. The supply and demand cycle, which involves large-scale production, consumption, and extraction of molecules from natural sources, also precipitates negative effects on the environment and human health in certain cases. The large-scale production of various synthetic derivatives still occurs for a variety of products, materials, and synthetic polymers and significantly contributes to threatening biodiversity, the fragmentation and destruction of habitats, pollution, climate change, damage to the ozone layer, and the depletion of non-renewable natural resources. A low amount of people are also considering reducing their ecological footprint and in many countries, the ecological footprint exceeds the bioavailability. Certain molecules that have been isolated and derived such as LSD, cocaine, and diacetylmorphine are responsible for a large amount of cases of addiction, dependence, health problems, and widespread abuse due to curiosity of many people to try something new. The illicit drug trade ignores the negative health effects of these substances and continues to engage in drug trafficking, cultivation, and trade to generate huge profits; they also set their own monopolies and cause the price of a drug to skyrocket as it is trafficked across a border or from one country to another. This analogy helps to explain that many business magnates, corporations, and industries neglect any negative health or environmental effects of the compounds and molecules they are producing and the molecules that are being applied, such as refrigerants, to provide comfortability and signs of technological and industrial advances. Certain organizations and protocols attempt to recognize the beneficial effects of various compounds in society, but also attempt to reduce their environmental impact by considering certain countermeasures, however only several countries consider participating and attempting to effect change because it will be expensive and time-consuming to reduce any negative impacts. As a result, a large amount of CFC molecules leak into the stratosphere on a daily basis and chlorine radicals decompose ozone molecules and biodiversity is continued to be threatened. The impact of human activity on the environment is significant, yet it is because of industrial processes and extracting natural resources in the primary and secondary industries; tertiary industries also require a variety of resources; for example, to facilitate comfortable working conditions, air conditioners are installed into office buildings, without a single thought about the negative effect of the cooling agents present in the device on the ozone layer. More research has been conducted on the negative impacts of various substances on the environment and we are obviously more knowledgeable of the molecules than the people during the past one-hundred and two-hundred years, yet the industrial production of these molecules that have been derived in the past has increased due to increasing demands, population growth, and rapidly progressing technological advancements. Therefore, the negative impacts of various molecules on the environment such as chlorofluorocarbons are neglected by corporations and are still being produced on a large-scale to generate profit and to meet the demands of people of society, yet a net negative effect on the environment continues to progress due to technological advancements, increasing demands, and an increasing population. Even if the issue is being dealt with and many alternatives have been synthesized to reduce environmental impact, the negative environmental impact is irreversible because our current situations do not permit it; an increasing population and demand requires an increased production and extraction of many natural resources, molecules, synthetic polymers, and agents to maintain and support the functioning of a variety of devices. The production of cooling agents and refrigerants such as chlorofluorocarbons allows refrigerators to perform their function: to store food items for prolonged periods of time.

 

                



Molecules versus Malaria

Molecules versus Malaria

 

Malaria is one of the most fatal and widespread diseases that affect a large amount of people annually due to the accumulation of the disease from the anopheles mosquito. Whenever the female mosquito requires a meal of blood in order to lay her eggs, the disease is transmitted into the bloodstream. Every year, there are three-hundred to five-hundred cases of malaria with two-three million resulting deaths, mainly in certain regions in Africa. The symptoms of malaria include jaundice, lethargy, fever, chills, coma, headache, muscle pains, and confusion. During the twentieth century, many people attempted to control the spread of malaria and provide protection against the disease. In the Andes, near Bolivia and Columbia, there is a species of plants of the Cinchona genus that contain an alkaloid, quinine. Quinine is a natural antidote that cures the disease of malaria. The quina bark has been consumed in the New World to cure the symptoms of malaria, along with cancer, hair loss, indigestion, and fever. In 1735, a French botanist, Joseph de Jussieu noticed another species of plants of the Rubiaceae family, yet the quina tree has been used and cut down in order to generate profit. Like another other molecule discussed in this book, the trade and monopoly of certain substances and compounds generate huge profits, which lead to the clear-cutting of approximately 25,000 quina trees every year, which depleted the natural supply of the quinine molecule. In 1820, the researchers Joseph Pelletier and Joseph Caventou managed to isolate and extract quinine, while it has been assumed that two molecules of allytoluidine reacting with three molecules of oxygen would yield to quinine and water, while the chemical reaction has been invalid; the yield of the combination of the reagents do not yield to the production of a quinine molecule; that is why Perkin failed to synthesize quinine, but synthesized mauve for the dye industry. Synthetic quinine could not have been derived at that time, therefore quina trees were being cut down to isolate the molecule from the Amazon basin. Large profit margins and economic expansion were noticed in many countries such as Bolivia, Deutschland, Columbia, Ecuador, and Peru from the monopoly of the quinine trade. Quinine is a derivative of the molecule quinoline; during World War II chloroquine has been synthesized from quinine after different methods of isolating quinoline from the quina tree have been discovered. Chlorquine contains a chlorine atom and acts as an effective anti-malarial agent and successfully treats acute malaria. During 1944, Robert Woodland and William Doering have synthesized quinine from quinoline and the synthesis of an identical to chemical/molecular structure of quinine requires a preparation of a mixture of two similar molecules present in the quina tree; the separation of the two similar anti-malarial would be very time-consuming and a difficult process to accomplish. The cultivation of quina trees, along with the harvesting of quinine still occurs in Indonesia, Zaire, India, and certain other counties. Alphonse Laveran and Ronald Ross discovered that the Plasmodium parasite undergoes a life cycle in the human body whenever a female mosquito bites an infected human. The sporozoites develop in the liver and produce spores in the bloodstream. This discovery lead to a new field of thought concerning the treatment of malaria and it has been proposed that preventing or breaking a certain section of the life cycle would prevent the disease from being spread. The molecule, DDT, or dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane, is a potent insecticide that interferes with the nerve impulse transmission unique to insects and the World Health Organization initiated a campaign to manufacture and produce large amounts of DDT to cure and prevent malaria and to eliminate it. DDT has been applied in many parts of the world and significant percentages of eliminated malaria have been noticed and in 1975, the WHO declared that Europe is malaria-free. However, DDT is poses toxicity towards humans as well. There is a certain mutation in the hemoglobin molecule that provides immunity to malaria, which is common in areas such as Africa, and provides the disorder or sickle-celled anemia. Regular red blood cells or erythrocytes have a flexible, biconcave shape that pass through blood vessels and deliver oxygen to the specialized tissues and organs. However, the sickle-cells adapt a different shape and are more rigid and less flexible, which means that improper transportation and an inadequate supply of oxygen to the tissues and organs might lead to their damage and failure. Therefore, the sickle-cells are being constantly destroyed, which leads to a lower count of red blood cells, which accounts for symptoms of anemia. Carriers of sickle-cell traits live in malarial areas. In the beta strand of the hemoglobin polypeptide (which contains repeating units of amino acids), the sixth amino acid in sickle-celled trait carriers would be glutamic acid instead of valine; the problem with this missense mutation is that a mild alteration in the molecular structure of the hemoglobin molecule might lead to life-threatening conditions such as sickle-celled anemia. Since the amino acid, glutamic acid contains an attached –COOH (carboxyl) group, insolubility occurs inside the red blood cells and the precipitation accounts for the change in shape and a lack of flexibility of the erythrocyte. The author’s argument makes sense because the overall picture based on the effect of the molecules and anti-malarial agents, quinine and DDT, on the economy, settlement, changes in society, and the eradication of malaria in North America and Europe. During the 19^th century, the quinine molecule facilitated the expansion of European colonies and the British Empire and during the 20^th century, the molecule DDT has eradicated malaria in certain parts of the world and accounts for the safety of many people living in former malarial areas. Therefore, the effects of the two molecules quinine, which is derived from quinoline (extracted from the quina tree) and DDT, a synthetic organic compound that is a potent pesticide, on society and civilization is immense; malaria has been eradicated and controlled in many parts of the world, huge profits have been generated, and a significant economic growth has been induced by the monopoly of the quinine trade and the large-scale industrial production of DDT.                  



Chlorocarbon Compounds

Chlorocarbon Compounds

 

Chlorocarbon compounds have influenced society to the point that the refrigeration of various food items involved storage chambers such as refrigerators with an implanted refrigerating agent that undergoes the evaporation-compression cycle at the correct range of temperatures. Whenever a refrigerating agent re-evaporates, it dissipates heat away from the solution/chamber and compresses into a liquid again in preparation for re-evaporation; that is why the process is referred to as refrigeration. A refrigerator requires a refrigerant, which would undergo that cycle. In 1859, ammonia has been used as a refrigerating agent by Ferdinand Carre of France. Sulfur dioxide, for its cooling effects, is used to aid in the formation of artificial ice. Cooling agents include diethyl ether, methyl chloride, ammonia, and sulfur dioxide. A group of compounds called the chlorofluorocarbons are non-toxic, non-flammable, chemically stable, and inexpensive to produce; Du Pont Corporation used Freon 12, Freon 11, and Freon 114. CFCs were noticed to be very effective and efficient refrigerating and cooling agents and influenced various business relationships, corporations, economic growth, industrial advances, and almost every citizen made use of a refrigerator to store their food in a cool storage facility. Air conditioners also contain CFCs or cooling agents, which are applied in homes, offices, malls, factories, and hospitals to provide convenience and comfortable conditions in the building. CFCs were also used to produce propellants, products held under pressure or spray cans, and as foaming agents. Since CFCs are gases at SATP, they are capable of expanding upon releasing from the chamber/container and hold the product in the container under pressure. Even is a large-scale production of CFCs has occurred to produce a variety of products, there are negative effects of these compounds on the ozone layer; molecules of CFCs are very stable, therefore they will not react with any other chemical present in the troposphere until they reach the stratosphere and are broken down by the ultraviolet radiation. The decomposition of CFCs leads to the production of chlorine radicals, which will react with ozone molecules to form diatomic oxygen and chlorine monoxide. The chlorine monoxide molecule that has been produced will react with elemental oxygen to form diatomic oxygen and a chlorine atom; therefore the chlorine atoms are constantly regenerated, which means that one molecule of a CFC is capable of decomposing approximately a hundred thousand ozone molecules before being deactivated. Since ozone molecules are constantly being decomposed into molecular oxygen and elemental oxygen and elemental oxygen reacting with molecular oxygen to produce and regenerate ozone molecules, the ozone layer is constantly being reformed and decomposes, yet the mechanism of action of CFC molecules could potentially upset the balance between oxygen and ozone molecules, according to the observations of Rowland and Molina. Since billions of CFC molecules travel towards the atmosphere every day, the decomposition of the ozone layer will eventually occur, leading to the increased propagation of dangerous ultraviolent rays, without being absorbed and processed, directly onto the surface of the ground, which will act as a more potent physical mutagen and biological hazard. The Montreal Protocol proposes certain countries to ban the usage of CFCs, whoever signs it, yet many countries have not considered arousing awareness on the immense environmental impacts these molecules impose on the ozone layer. A majority of the CFCs leak out of disposed air-conditioning devices and refrigerators. Chlorine gas, itself, is toxic and could cause toxicity and irritation. The first poisonous gas that has been used during the First World War has been the mustard gas, which induced breathings problems and choking. Chlorine gas acts as a potent irritant and causes inflammation of the lining of the respiratory tract, which could eventually lead to death; respiratory impairment and eye damage could also occur as a result of the exposure to this gas. Phosgene gas is also highly toxic and induces death through severe swelling of the tissues in the lungs and airways, leading to suffocation. During the late 1920s, compounds called polychlorinated biphenyls are used as electrical insulators and as coolants, due to their chemical stability at high temperatures and lack of flammability. During the manufacture and production of various plastics or synthetic polymers, the shape of the product should be established by molding it, however an agent is required; the PCBs acted as flexibility-enhancing agents. Polychlorinated biphenyls are compounds that contain two benzene rings bonded to one another with chlorine atoms attached to each benzene ring. However, PCBs lead to damage to the nervous, endocrine, reproductive, and immune systems, along with causing liver failure and cancer, which makes these compounds one of the most dangerous compounds ever synthesized. For prolonged period of time, the potent pesticide, DDT, has been used in many countries as an anti-malarial agent, along with chloroquine, quinine, and antibiotics such as ampicillin and penicillin. DDT has been synthesized during the year 1874 and has been used at first to prevent the accumulation of typhus by eradicating the larvae of the disease-causing mosquitoes. Millions of tons of DDT, by the 1970s, have been produced, yet there are many negative effects the compound has towards human health and the environment. The exposure of DDT to certain species of birds will lead to their shells being soft and fragile when they lay eggs due to a metabolite of DDT inhibiting the enzyme that supplies calcium to their eggs. Another compound, dioxin, is one of the most lethal toxins synthesized; dioxins are also produced during the combustion of synthetic polymers. James Young Simpson, a physician and a professor of medicine has accidently synthesized chloroform or trichloromethane; it is a molecule where three hydrogen atoms on the methane molecule are replaced with three chlorine atoms. During surgical cases, applications of chloroform are more convenient than diethyl ether because it is very flammable. Chloroform has been applied to various surgical operations to induce anesthesia and has been administered to relieve the pain during childbirth, along with morphine and scopolamine. The toxicity of chloroform should be considered as well because during exposure to chloroform, corneal damage, fatigue, irregular heartbeat, renal toxicity, liver toxicity could be noticed. However; the usage of various chlorocarbon compounds improved refrigeration of food items so that they could be transported over long distances and remain in the fridge for a long time without the necessity to place any chunks of ice into the cooling chamber. Other chlorocarbons have been used to improve surgical operations and as anti-malarial agents such as chloroform and DDT. The synthesis of various CFCs has already lead to significant technological advancements because every refrigerator contains refrigerating or cooling agents, which are the CFC molecules. That is why we are able to store various food items such as fruits, vegetables and milk in the fridge for prolonged periods of time. The impact of chlorocarbon compounds on the economy, the monopoly and trade, society, the industry, and refrigeration technologies has been considerably large.                  



Salt

Salt

 

Salt, or sodium chloride, is an ionic compound that has significantly impacted civilization, is necessary in the body for electrical conductivity, depolarization, and propagation of action potentials, and is one of the most soluble compounds in water. Salt contains two atoms, sodium and chlorine atoms. Each atom has the opposite electric charge; a solution of sodium chloride conducts electricity due to the dissociation of sodium and chlorine ions in solution. The positive ends of the water molecule surround the chlorine atoms and each negative end of the water molecule surrounds the sodium ions. The oxygen atom in the water molecule is more electronegative, thus it possesses a slightly negative charge and the hydrogen atoms possess a slightly positive charge because the shared electrons in the covalent bonds spend a majority of the time around the oxygen atoms; the uneven orbiting of electrons is a result of a difference in electronegativities amongst the two types of atoms engaging in covalent bonding. Salt, since it attracts water molecules and dehydrates the product it is contained in at high quantities, it acts as a preservative because the bacteria that cause decay flourish in an aqueous environment. Whenever an axon membrane or a muscle membrane prepares to contract or depolarize, the voltage-gated sodium channels open at -50mv and an influx of sodium ions rush into the cytoplasm. Since sodium ions play such a role in conducting messages from neuron to neuron and from neuron to an effector, vital body processes could be maintained and homeostatic equilibrium could be maintained. The mineral that contains a very high solubility in water is halite, which contains a very high amount of salt. Arrhenius, a Swedish chemist, proposed that ionic compounds such as salt dissociate into charged species or ions and conduct electricity in solution and acids and bases increase the concentration of hydrogen/hydroxide ions in solution. Sodium chloride’s molecular structure is a crystal lattice that contains each ion bonded to as many oppositely charged ions as possible; the electrostatic forces that hold the molecule together are so strong that the compound is a solid at SATP and in order to break the crystal lattice, an electric current has to be passed through the substance at a high enough voltage, this is a chemical reaction that is referred to as electrolysis. Sodium ions play an important role in the human body by generating electric impulses to transmit information and the sodium-potassium pump restores the resting membrane potential at -70mv through the active transport of sodium and potassium ions, requiring the hydrolysis of ATP. A lack of sodium in the body causes vascular collapse, cramps, nausea, and a loss of weight and appetite. Excess consumption of salt leads to a high blood pressure because a higher concentration of solids in the bloodstream has to be accompanied with reabsorption of water from the filtrate in the kidneys into the bloodstream, thus increasing the blood volume and pressure. Since sodium ions are constantly being secreted into the filtrate and removed from the body through renal excretion, we have to replace the supply of salt in our bodies through our diet. Sodium chloride is a compound that is responsible for the salt trade and monopoly, economic growth, industrial advances, and supporting necessary processes in the body at the cellular level. The price of salt has declined over periods of time in history due to the efforts of many chemists and scientists to derive cheaper methods of producing and isolating the compound. The isolation of salt involves extracting salt from salt solutions in brine springs, mining for salt rock, and evaporating sea water. Solar evaporation of sea water is a cheap method of producing salt in coastal region, however it is very time-consuming. Since the volume of the solvent declines, the excess solute crystallizes out of the solution due to insolubility. The salt solutions in brine springs were extremely concentrated, often ten times more concentrated than seawater. Brine salt is not contaminated with calcium chloride and magnesium chloride, it is more expensive than salt obtained through solar evaporation, and it is not an effective enough preservative because calcium and magnesium chloride also absorb water from the air. Salt rock or halite are remains of old oceans and seas that are solid nowadays. Many settlements flourished around these halite deposits and mines that extracted salt, which promoted economic growth, wealth, and the growth of cities and towns. The salt trade involved areas such as the Sahara dessert, the Mediterranean regions, and the west coast of Africa. Saharan salt has been transported to Europe at high quantities due to the increasing demand for salt; various products such as herring and cod had to be preserved with salt as well. The salt monopoly and trade has caused the economy to flourish in different parts of the world and the taxation on salt lead to high profit margins. The tariffs and taxes applied on salt has been very lucrative. The salt tax has been abolished in the United Kingdom in 1825 and in 1923; the salt tax has doubled on Indian citizens. Mahatma Gandhi has been responsible for increasing the access to salt for Indian citizens through non-violent civil disobedience. Another compound, soda ash or sodium carbonate, is a material that is used to produce soaps. The production of soda ash has met the increasing demands for soap. In Belgium in the early 1860s, Ernest and Alfred Solvay have derived a method of producing sodium bicarbonate from sodium chloride using ammonia, water, and carbon dioxide and the production of sodium carbonate from the heating of sodium bicarbonate. The byproduct for the first chemical reaction is ammonium chloride and the byproduct for the second chemical reaction is carbon dioxide. The demand for caustic soda also increased; the production of sodium hydroxide involves the electrolysis of sodium chloride. NaOH is used to produce paper, detergents, soap, and petroleum products. The production of chlorine through the electrolysis of brine is used to form synthetic polymers (plastics), pharmaceuticals, and pesticides. Therefore, the isolation, production, and derivation of salt, sodium hydroxide, chlorine gas, and sodium carbonate have fueled the economy and facilitated the production of a variety of products such as plastics, soap, preserved foods, and detergents. Nowadays, almost everybody has salt in their home and large quantities of salt are produced cheaply to meet the demands of society for various items.

Oleic Acid

Oleic Acid

 

Olive oil or oleic acid is a triglyceride, which is the most common form of fats or lipids. This particular triglyceride, oleic acid, shaped the Roman and western civilizations and olive oil has been applied for many reasons. A triglyceride is a lipid that is formed from condensation or dehydration synthesis reactions between fatty acids and glycerol. Glycerol or propane-1,2,3-triol, is an organic compound or alcohol that contains a hydroxyl group attached to all three carbon atoms in the hydrocarbon chain. Glycerol serves as a backbone in triglyceride molecules. Fatty acids are lengthy hydrocarbon chains, varying in the number of carbon atoms in their molecular structure, which have a carboxyl group at the end; a carboxyl group consists of a carbonyl group and a hydroxyl group. Whenever three water molecules are removed; the hydrogen atoms are removed from the hydroxyl groups on the glycerol molecule and the hydroxyl groups are removed from the carboxyl groups from the fatty acid chains to form a triglyceride and water (HOH). There are two types of fats; saturated fats and unsaturated fats. Saturated fatty acid chains contain all of the carbon atoms bound to the maximum number of hydrogen atoms and single-bonded amongst another. Unsaturated fatty acid chains contain double bonds between certain carbon atoms and not every carbon atom is bound to a maximum number of hydrogen atoms. Monounsaturated fatty acids contain one carbon-carbon double bond and a polyunsaturated fat contains multiple carbon-carbon double bonds; the presence of a double bond does not allow the chain to pack as effectively and it is bent; which aids in the catabolism of triglycerides and the overall bonding strength and intermolecular forces of attraction are responsible for its liquid state at SATP. Saturated fats contain uniform-shaped fatty acid chains and they are solids at SATP. Oleic acid is a fatty acid that contains eight carbon atoms and one carbon-carbon double bond, making it a monounsaturated fat. Whenever a condensation reaction occurs between glycerol and oleic acid, the product is olive oil. Since the chemical reaction is occurring between a carboxylic acid and an alcohol, the product is an ester; therefore lipid anabolism and synthesis is considered an esterification reaction. An esterification reaction is a type of condensation reaction and involves the removal of a common small molecule, water. Another concern about fats is their isomeration into trans fats, which cannot be digested with any enzymes and form plaques in arteries, leading to cardiovascular disease. The ratio between high-density lipoproteins and low-density lipoproteins in certain lipids determines the effect of the fat on the serum cholesterol level; the low-density lipoproteins are water-insoluble accumulations of cholesterol, triglycerides, and proteins, which transport cholesterol from the liver into the small intestine, which elevates the amount of cholesterol floating in the bloodstream. Blood plaques induced by high serum cholesterol levels lead to cardiovascular disease and atherosclerosis. High-density lipoproteins transport excess cholesterol from the bloodstream into the liver for disposal. Coronary heart disease became very common when saturated fats have been introduced into Europe. Olive oil also contains traces of polyphenols and antioxidant molecules such as vitamin E and vitamin K. The cold-pressing method of obtaining olive oil retains these nutrients, which could be deactivated by higher temperatures. Vitamin E is a nutrient that is present in many lipids, which acts as a scavenger for free radicals; vitamin E is regenerated by vitamin C to eliminate an even greater amount of free radicals from the body. The hydrogenation of unsaturated fatty acids leads to the production of saturated fatty acids or solid triglycerides, which are more difficult to digest and contain small traces of trans-fatty acids, which pose a cardiovascular toxicity. The presence of preservatives and antioxidants in olive oil allowed the product to be transported across large distances during the olive oil trade; fertile land has been used to cultivate the product. The olive oil trade supported large empires by inducing and maintaining economic stability. However, the increasing demand for the product has not been met with a decreasing amount of agricultural land, which lead to the collapse of the Greek Empire. The olive oil tree has been found in Greece and Italy during ancient times and has been used to treat a variety of symptoms such as nausea and insomnia, represented wealth and fertility, and has been used as a food additive. Soap has also been synthesizes from triglycerides; soaps have a significant impact on civilization because they help maintain sanitary conditions and provide protection against dirt and various infection-causing bacteria from the external environment. The formation of soap first involved saponification, which involves the insertion of a base such as caustic potash or caustic soda to break up the bonds to form separate glycerol molecules and fatty acid chains. potassium soaps are soft and sodium soaps are hard and commercial production of soap occurred in England during the fourteenth century. A result of this has been a decrease in infant mortality rates due to the increased usage of soap. During the late 1700s, a French chemist, Nicolas LeBlanc, invented a cheaper production of soap by producing sodium hydroxide from common salt (sodium chloride – NaCl). This has increased the availability of soap to the public because the cost of soap has declined. Soap molecules actually clean because one end of the molecules contain hydrophilic ends that dissolve in water and other ends of the molecule, the fatty acid chains, which are lipophilic and hydrophobic, dissolve in grease, oil, and fat. The Greek Empire has served as a foundation to establish democratic societies and to influence large amounts of people in other counties, all because of the triglyceride oleic acid. Currently, olive oil is used as a flavor enhancer. Therefore, oleic acid has supported the economy of the Greek Empire, is widely used by many people as a flavor enhancer, has influenced the production of soap to maintain sanitary conditions, has facilitated various activities and expansion of society due to its effects on economic growth, and has induces a trade and monopoly that involved the large-scale production and cultivation of olive oil, the transportation of olive oil on ships over large distances, and the growth and development of human civilization, urban areas, and the economy across Europe and different parts of the world.             

 



Morphine, Nicotine, and Caffeine

Morphine, Nicotine, and Caffeine

The main reason as to why various alkaloids are isolated, derived, and ingested is that pleasure and a chemical fix could be experienced. Opium, which is a substance that could be isolated from the opium poppy, Papaver somniferum, contains the alkaloid morphine. Opium has been used for its intoxicating and therapeutic effects since prehistoric times and has been cultivated in many parts of the world, such as the eastern Mediterranean region and Persia. Opium has been used as a medical herb to enhance creativity, to relieve pain, and as an intoxicant by many people. Opium has been prohibited by law during the early twentieth century die to the addictive properties of the alkaloids. The abuse of opium has been very common, especially throughout China. Opium contains a variety of alkaloids, which the most abundant alkaloid being morphine. Morphine is a narcotic (because it is derived from opium) analgesic and has the ability to reduce pain. The molecular structure of morphine is similar to the molecular structure of the polypeptide hormones, endorphins. The chemical similarities of morphine and endorphins accounts for the common binding sites. The morphine molecules bind to a regulating site at pain receptors and prevent them from being depolarized and reduce the transmission of pain signals. Excess activity of endorphins or narcotics induces a state of well-being and euphoria. A similar alkaloid to morphine, codeine, is a less potent and addictive narcotic pain reliever that contains a CH₃O group instead of an HO group attached to the benzene ring. Felix Hoffman, after synthesizing acetylsalicylic acid or Aspirin, he synthesized diacetylmorphine from morphine. The same acylation reaction, in which acetyl groups are introduced into the molecular structure in place of hydrogen atoms on hydroxyl groups, has been applied to morphine to metabolize it into heroin. The drug, heroin, is more addictive and potent than morphine and passes through the blood-brain barrier more rapidly. Since diacetylmorphine is more potent than morphine itself, it has been administered during surgical operations and in cases of severe pain and suffering in lower doses. A majority of countries ban the drug and it is illegal by law, however the illegal drug trade proceeds to generate huge profits; one of the products of the acylation reaction of morphine, acetic acid, can arouse suspicions in authorities based on the presence of an illicit drug. The species of plants, Nicotina, contains an alkaloid called nicotine, which has been discovered by Christopher Columbus in the New World. He noticed that many people were administering this drug in different ways. Tobacco has also been banned in many countries such as England, France, and Russia. The nicotine molecule, which is an alkaloid present in the tobacco leaves, forms a linkage in the junction between two neurons, which increases the neurotransmission because the nerve signals could travel to other neurons across a greater amount of routes and linkages, however the neurotransmitter sites become obstructed due to the unsuccessful method of elevating the neurotransmission by the molecule, nicotine, resulting in a lower heart rate, blood flow, and oxygen transportation to the specialized tissues. Nicotine, in higher doses, is a lethal toxin and is a potent insecticide. One the drug is administered through smoking as vapor, the nicotine molecules in the vapor travel along the respiratory tract, through the trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles, into the sites of gas exchange, the alveoli, where the alkaloid molecules absorb directly into the bloodstream and pose their physiological activity and mechanism of action based on their molecular structure and similarities in molecular structure between a hormone/neurotransmitter and the drug itself. One of the B vitamins, nicotinic acid, is a very necessary nutrient and its deficiency leads to a disease called Pellagra, which leads to dermatitis, dementia, and diarrhea. Commercial bakers modified the name of the vitamin into niacin because they do not want the name of the vitamin to sound like a very addictive and harmful drug. Caffeine, the third alkaloid that influenced the Opium war, is a psychoactive drug with an addictive potential almost equivalent to the addictive potential of marijuana. Caffeine is considered to be a central nervous system stimulant and is contained in coffee, caffeine pills, and energy drinks [which ere products of the twenty-first century]. Theophylline is found in tea, theobromine is found in cocoa, and caffeine is found in coffee beans. The differences in molecular structure amongst these alkaloids accounts for their divergent physiological activity. Caffeine interferes with the function and activity of the neuromodulator, adenosine, which decreases the rate of spontaneous nerve firing and regulates neurotransmission. As a result of suppress adenosine activity induced by caffeine, the neurotransmission increases and the heart rate increases, along with the blood pressure. Certain blood vessels dilate as well. Medically, caffeine could be used to increase blood pressure, as a diuretic, and to treat migraines; theophylline in tea could be used to treat asthma as a bronchodilator. Therefore, one of the alkaloids, caffeine, has been widely used by many people since its introduction into Europe through chocolate and has been responsible for the economic growth of many countries, such as Brazil; the economic growth induced by the caffeine trade and monopoly permitted the construction of railways. The three molecules and alkaloids, opium, nicotine, and caffeine, have been desired, abused, and used medically for certain assumed therapeutic properties and have influenced economic growth through the transportation, trade, large-scale production, and consumptions of these products. The main reason as to why so many historical events have been tolerated in association to these alkaloids is because of people’s desire to ingest a substance and experience pleasure or entertainment as a result of the physiological activity of these molecules. The addiction forms as a result of tolerance and dependence; dependence arises when the administration of a drug is needed to support and maintain normal brain function and tolerance develops as a result of adaptation, and increase in the amount of smooth endoplasmic reticulum organelles in the cells that detoxify the drug, and a lower production of receptor proteins in response to the overstimulation. The isolation and derivation of alkaloids lead to economic booms and to social changes such as serving coffee in every café in Europe after caffeine has been introduced into their culture.                 

   
 

Molecules of Witchcraft

Molecules of Witchcraft

 

Various alkaloids and substances were known by witches and public scrutiny was very common towards witches; fingers were pointed mainly at women, however not every witch was malignant. There were witches that were knowledgeable of certain herbs and alkaloids that could cure and suppress various symptoms and diseases. Many witches were put to death before and after the year 1350 A.D. because witchcraft was perceived as a practice of sorcery. By the fourteenth century, a new attitude has been adopted toward witchcraft by the Church and by Christianity. However, it was believed that many witches were entering a pact with the Devil and many of them were still being put to death. A misunderstanding of the lifestyle of witches has been prevalent during the Medieval Times and many periods in history, eventually leading to the torture and execution of witches by evidence during the mid-fifteenth century. The various acts attributed to witches such as eating babies, having sex with demons, and flying on broomsticks were myths and were used to increase accusation of witches for their ways; prejudice and discrimination has been very common in the past and many types of people have suffered for their differences as a result of biases, stereotypes, and alienation. Entire villages in German and Swiss villages have been burned and destroyed as a result of a belief that a majority of the inhabitants of those areas were witches. Across Europe, a large amount of witches have been executed and the ideology/paranoia has swept throughout the entire continent for many years until a social movement arisen. Many witches actually were able to use certain herbs to relieve pain, cure diseases, and to remove hexes, however the prejudice amongst society towards witches have outcompeted the fact that a majority of witches were not malignant, but were talented, were different, were knowledgeable of various healing and therapeutic substances and alkaloids, and possessed divergent abilities. Certain herbs that contained salicylic acid were very common and digitalis, an extract from the Digitalis purpea, contains the alkaloid digoxin, which is known as a cardiac glycoside, which poses cardiovascular activity in the body. Digoxin strengthens the heart beat, reduces the heart rate, treats electric abnormalities of the heart, and restores a regularized cardiac cycle. There are other alkaloids present that affect the heart, yet they cannot be used as cardio stimulants because they pose a cardiovascular toxicity such as bufotoxin. The European toad, bufo bulgaris, releases one of the most toxic substances. There is a group of molecules and substances known as alkaloids, which could be isolated from various plant sources and have a physiological activity in the body; many drugs such as morphine and cocaine are alkaloids because they pose a physiological effect in the body, such as an increase in neurotransmission. Alkaloids are organic compounds that contain nitrogen atoms. Various derivatives of alkaloids are synthesized to relieve pain (codeine), to act as an antimalerial agent (chloroquine), and to act as an anesthetic (benzocaine) and for other pharmaceutical purposes. Plants cannot practice self-defense in physical means, so it contains alkaloids which are natural pesticides, insecticides, and fungicides. An alkaloid called scopolamine has been used as an anesthetic and atropine has been used as an antidote for even more toxic substances than atropine itself. Various alkaloids could induce hallucinations, euphoria, interfere with regular and normal brain function, interfere with neurotransmission and heart rate, and induce changes in perception, consciousness, and awareness of the external environment. Many alkaloids such as piperine in peppers and nicotine in tobacco gained immediate acceptance to be applied in society and other alkaloids such as Datura in the thorn apple are deliriants and euphoriants, however many adverse effects could be experienced following the ingestion of these types of alkaloids. The species, Etythroxylon, the coca tree, contains an alkaloid called cocaine. Coca leaves have been used in Bolivia, Peru, and Ecuador for their stimulating effects of hundreds of years. During the 1880s, cocaine has been isolated in a laboratory and it has been assumed that therapeutic effects would be evident in certain patients, while the complete opposite has occurred in a majority of people who have ingested the drug. Sigmund Freud prescribed cocaine for its stimulating properties and to treat morphine additions. However, abuse of cocaine could lead to various health problems and depression. Various compounds such as novocaine, benzocaine, and lidociane have been synthesized as local anesthetics to block sodium channels; however they do not affect the central nervous system and disrupt the hearth rhythm. Certain alkaloids called the ergot alkaloids were used for their hallucinogenic properties. The alkaloids are present in the ergot fungus and could be isolated. Symptoms of ergotism or an overdose are convulsions, hallucinations, manic behavior, a crawling sensation under the skin, vomiting, lethargy, and diarrhea. Ergot alkaloids are toxic, yet their derivatives could be used for their therapeutic effects and their effects on mental attitude and perception. The alkaloids present in the ergot fungus are all derivatives of lysergic acid, which has been investigated by Albert Hoffman. Albert Hoffman, a chemist working as research laboratories in Swiss pharmaceutical companies, has synthesized the twenty-fifth derivative of lysergic acid or LSD-25 (lysergic acid diethylamide) in 1938. Hoffman, to test his discovery, has ingested orally a sample of LSD and experienced a variety of effects such as hallucinations, dizziness, paranoia, out-of-body experiences, and possible brain damage. During the 1960s, the drug LSD became increasingly popular amongst youth and has been used to treat alcoholic schizophrenia. Symptoms of psychosis could be evident in certain people. The pharmaceutical industry has been influenced by the work of witches and the isolation of various alkaloids from different plant species, and the chemical and molecular structure of alkaloids became much more known after many discoveries on the presence alkaloids and their derivation has occurred. Therefore, alkaloids have different properties and physiological activity in the body; the toxins should be avoided and the other alkaloids such as LSD should be studied meticulously and should be used only for therapeutic purposes to decrease the chances and possibilities of experiencing negative and adverse effects from a potentially-beneficial molecule.